The Effects of street hawking on adolescent’s classroom behavior in the Limbe I municipality
Department: Educational Psychology
No of Pages: 77
Project Code: EPY11
References: Yes
Cost: 5,000XAF Cameroonian
: $15 for International students
The study investigated the effects of street hawking on adolescent’s
classroom behaviour in the Limbe I Municipality. Specifically, the study
examined whether student’s lateness, and poverty affects adolescent’s classroom
behaviour.
Data was collected purposively, with the use of a questionnaire, from a
sample population of 80 students. The study employed a descriptive study
design. Data was descriptively analysed from the questionnaire by calculating
frequencies and percentages.
Inferential statistics were also employed, using the Spearman Rho
Correlation coefficient. Findings revealed that lateness had a significant
effect on street hawking (R=0.531, P = 0.01); fatigue has a significant effect
on street hawking (R= 0.465, P = 0.022); poverty has a significant effect on
street hawking (R= 0.265, P = 0.017).
By implication street hawking has a significant effect on adolescent
classroom behaviour. It was recommended that parents should be sensitized to
the adverse effect of hawking on children schooling.
It was also
recommended that street hawking by students should be restricted to
weekends/holidays and parents should ensure that the students have some hours
to rest and study and during the last
week of
holidays the students should be free from hawking to revise their notes in
preparation for resumption; and students who involved in street hawking should
be treated as those with special needs.
During teaching
and learning, teachers should give them special attention by: encouraging them
to participate; help them develop positive academic self-concept and self-esteem;
and make the classroom conducive for learning.
CHAPTER
ONE
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses
on the introduction to the study, the background of the study, statement of the
problem, research questions, hypotheses, justification, the significance of the
study, the scope of the study, and the operational definition of terms.
Street hawking is a
form of selling goods along the road from one place to the other (Umar 2009).
It also extends to be an act of canvassing for sale items carried by a hawker
along the street from house to house or in the public space (Ikechebebu et al 2008:
114).
Asare (2010) sees
street hawking as an act of selling retail goods directly on busy city streets,
while Amoo (2012), is displaying wares by the roadside, carrying head pan or
raising a sample of wares to the commuters while the vehicle is moving. Umar
(2009) define street hawking as the selling of things along the roads and from
one place to the other.
A synthesis of the
literature shows that there are other names street hawking is been refer to
among which are; small and medium scale trade (Eghosa, 2010), street trading
(Amoo, 2012), street vending (Mittulah, 2005), which, however, has the same
meaning and can be used interchangeably.
There is no single
universal definition of the concept of street hawking; it has been defined
differently by many researchers but portraying the same meaning.
The above definitions
give a picture of what is visible in the pattern of present-day hawking. Unlike
in the past when hawkers move from house to house and around the marketplace,
now high ways are the major spot of hawking due to a large number of commuters
every day.
Street hawking,
therefore, is a small scale trade in which the seller move around in search for
prospective buyer from house to house, public offices, institutions and mainly
motor parks and busy pedestals.
For this study, street
hawking is referring to hawking by school-going children. A child is a person
male or female who is below the age of eighteen.
In literature, hawking
involving children is referring to differently but holds the same meaning as
child street-trading (Ashimolowo et al., 2010), teenage hawking (Eghosa,
2010), juvenile street hawking (Udoh & Joseph 2010), child street vendor
(Ugochukwu, 2012) and child street hawking (Dada, 2013).
Therefore, child
street-hawking can be interchangeable with street hawking which is the act of
selling wares by children. A hawker is someone who engages in street hawking,
however when the person is a child, it can refer to as; juvenile hawker
(Ayodele, &Olubayo-Fatiregun, 2014), child street-vendor, (Ugochukwu,
2012), child hawker (Akighir, 2013), and child street-trader.
To distinct the child
hawker by gender, it can be referred to as male child-hawker (if it is a boy)
and female child-hawker or girl-child hawker (if it is a girl).
Involving
children in hawking goods in the street is an emerging trend in Cameroon and an
issue of concerns Cameroon being among the poorest economies in the world—with
the accompanying effects of unemployment, poor infrastructural facilities, and
lack of human empowerment—has seen most of her populace living in abject
poverty.
Therefore,
because of the low socio-economic status of most families in Cameroon and the
high rate of poverty, most parents cannot help but push their children into the
streets where they spend long hours selling either cold water, fruits, boiled
groundnut, “Congo meat” (fried snails), beverages and so on; so that the
proceeds may contribute to family upkeep.
This situation
is alarming because street hawking is a form of child labour and abuse which is
on the increase. Street hawking is considered a form of child abuse because it
endangers the health (physical, spiritual, psychological, and social) and
safety of the child especially the girl child about rape; interferes with
his/her education, and deprives him/her the right to a normal and happy
childhood.
Historically, street hawkers and street markets originated, all
over the world, as the real first form of retailing. Today we still use the
term ‘street markets to refer to outdoor spaces that are made up of a set of
implicit and explicit traditions and cultural practices, but these are also
spaces of sociality and connection (Watson 2009; Watson and Studdert 2006).
Hawking appears to be
part of Cameroon culture and understandably so Cameroon being among the poorest
economies in the world—with the accompanying effects of unemployment, poor
infrastructural facilities, and lack of human empowerment—has seen most of her
populace living in abject poverty.
Therefore, because of
the low socio-economic status of most families in Cameroon and the high rate of
poverty, most parents cannot help but push their wards into the streets where
they spend long hours, at the mercy of environmental elements, selling ―pure
water (sachet water), fruits, confectioneries, beverages and so on; so that the
proceeds may contribute to family upkeep.
This situation is
alarming because street hawking is a form of child labour and abuse which is on
the increase in Uyo metropolis. Street hawking is considered a form of child
abuse because it endangers the health (physical, spiritual, psychological, and
social) and safety of the child; interferes with his/her education, and
deprives him/her the right to normal and happy childhood.
In the words of Ebigbo
(2003), ―The traditional farming and trading Nigerian society, impacted by
economic and political misery, cultural conflict, unemployment, illiteracy, and
urban drift, is leading to exploited, uneducated, abused, malnourished
children.
With the advent
of industrialization and increased urbanization since1950, the conflict between
the government and street hawkers over these of public space has deepened; the
government has intensified its intervention in street hawking in an attempt to
gain greater control over the management of public space.
It is now
widely recognized within the government apparatus that any attempt at
eradicating street hawking is unrealistic; instead, increased enforcement
actions are channeled into controlling street hawkers’ access to public space
for economic activity.
From an
economic point of view, hawkers offer the possibility of providing cheaper
goods to local residents, helping to lower their living expenses and maintain
sociality, thus avoiding the withering away of what is common to the community
(Ranciere 2009).
Hawking also
offers the possibility of ‘absorbing excess labour during uncertain employment
conditions and honing entrepreneurial skills useful for economic development
(McGee and Yeung 1977, 47).
McGee and Yeung
advocated the adoption of indigenous planning policies that could provide
support (as opposed to obstacles) for the co-existence of the hawking
profession with the progressive development of the city, since—in their
opinion—economic advancement and hawking could actually complement each other
and encourage greater productivity.
Rather, Smart
(1989) argued, street hawking had a crucial functional importance vis-a-vis the
overall retailing structure. Due to the relatively slow growth of wages in the
1980s (which were pegged to the supply and demand mechanisms of the labour
market), the more flexible hawking profession had the potential to become a
high-income profession in some cases.
There were also
personal advantages, such as the possibility of being one’s own boss and
carrying on the family business, combining the historical tradition with the
economic basis for self-sustainment.
Depending on
their specific location, some hawkers were also able to establish contacts and
mutual dependence networks with the adjacent shops: a strategy which allowed them
to survive in spite of the competition that modern shopping complexes have
created for them.
Street vending
is the most visible form of informal economic activity across developing
countries. Regardless of its massive contribution to the economy and employment,
many still view the activity as a nuisance that ought to be eliminated or at
least kept in check by the government.
Arguably,
street vendors are harmless. They have one purpose: to sell their wares and
make money. In fact, their supply is driven by the continuous demand by
customers who indicate preference for the convenience and affordability of
these roadside products.
In cities like
Doula and Yaounde where traffic is part of everyday life, street vendors
provide an essential service to tired and frustrated drivers stuck in traffic.
Yet, there seems to be a constant cat and mouse relationship between the
government and street vendors, with the latter often treated like criminals.
From an
economic standpoint, they promote informality, undercut prices, propel the
market for smuggled goods and encourage bad business practices. These vendors
are not held accountable and often get away with activities that would be
considered unethical in the formal sector.
Food and drink
constitute a major part of the street vending market; raising a serious
question about public health. According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
around 600 million people die from food contamination annually.
Consumers are
therefore putting themselves at risk daily when they consume these unidentified
items; that cheap plate of rice could come at a price. We also have the
pertinent issue of child labour.
Most of the
children littering the street sought to be in school. Instead, they spend their
days doing dangerous jobs that could potentially cost them their lives. And, in
some cases, these children become part of the Almajiri system or even fall into
the hands of human traffickers.
Children are seen as
the most important element of development. That is why their welfare in society
is an index of social and economic development of that society. As such, child
welfare is included in the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) (UNESCO, 2004).
In the recent times,
street hawking has received considerable attention from public as well as government.
However, parents are faced with the challenges of running the families and
provision for the basic needs of their children during this period when the
unemployment rate and poverty level is at the peak.
Parents often argue
that this necessitates them to solicit helping hands from their children
through Hawking in order to make the family meet their ends (Esan, 2011).
Nevertheless, as
Cruzador (1998) points out, there is
nothing wrong with work … what is wrong is the way the children are exploited,
beaten and sexually abused; this basic assumption holds insofar as the Cameroon
economic situation is concerned.
Taken differently,
juvenile work is a good form of industry training given to children and should
not be completely eradicated. What is required to allay the threat of child
labour and abuse is a more nuanced view of children ‘s contribution to family
income and livelihood.
It is thus hoped that
by thus exposing the negative effects of street hawking on children, those
concerned will be able to draw the line between what amounts to child work
training and child labour and abuse.
Conceptually,
child-street hawking is a common phenomenon in most African countries and
Cameroon is not an exemption. This is more prevalent in urban areas where these
children are found along highways or at travelling agencies.
Hawking is a form of
trade in which the seller (hawker) carry wares (commodities or goods) from one
place to another in search of prospective buyers. Child-Street hawking refers
to the selling of goods carry out by a person below the age of eighteen
(child-street hawker).
Among child-street
hawkers are school going children (in-school child-hawkers) who out of
necessity combine schooling with economic activities despite its consequences.
Street hawking affects adolescent’s classroom behaviour in the sense these
children get tired due to running up
and down to sell their
commodities, some of them hawk till late hours of the night and sleep very late
which affect the time in which they wake up to go to school, the mentality that
he/she is missing while others are making money affects their attendance in
school which goes a long way to affect their academic performance.
Early deprivation of
children‘s right to normal life could lead to behavioural problems. Thus, the
behavioural manifestations of problems associated with street hawking include
problems of social maladjustment, moral defect, emotional reaction and
insecurity.
Dantiye and Haruna
(2004) observed that street hawking is highly detrimental to children‘s
physical, mental, psychological, and social development.
Also, in a study
conducted by Aderinto and Okunola (1998), children submitted that they were
pushed into street hawking by maintenance needs. Onibokun (2000) also found
that children are forced into street hawking by the need to contribute to
family income, lack of relevant education that can guarantee employment after
training and demands of traditions.
Also, ILO
(1998) submitted that 40% of street children are employed as sex workers, drug
peddlers, car washers and bus conductors for economic ends.
Juvenile street
hawking has a negative effect on the level of education attained, school
attendance, school grades, literacy, and overall human capital formation
(Murphy, Jellinek, Quinn, Smith, Poitrast, &Goshko, 1991).
It is also
found to results in low school enrolment with developmental and performance
implications (Basu& Van, 1998). In another study conducted in Asia, child
labor was also found to negatively affect the educational outcomes of children
(Charles & Charles, 2004).
In Africa, and
particularly in rural Nigeria, it has been observed that child laborers
generally have lower school attendance (Robson, 2004).
The physical
and health consequences of children participating in the sales and service
sector of the economy have been identified in Latin America, Asia and Africa to
include various diseases
such as
respiratory problems, injuries, rape and molestation, malnourishment, extortion
of income, and participation in harmful or delinquent activities, inadequate
sleep due to fatigue and long hours on the job, and confinement in juvenile
homes (Finkelman, 1995; Ross, 1996).
Children engaged in
trading encounter problems related to their psychological well-being too.
Stigmatization by the press and public, feelings of disheartenment, stress and
irritability, personality disorders, anti-social behaviour, alienation, and
isolation from their family have all been identified (Amin, 1994).
Still on the effects
of child labour on the mental health of the child, Baland and Robinson (2000)
found that these children suffer verbal abuse, low self esteem, and a loss of
imagination and future direction in life.
It is also a known
fact that child labourers tend to keep bad company and are negatively pressured
by peers to engage in delinquent behaviour (Hughes, 2009). One common thread
emerging from the synthesis of literature is that child labour had detrimental
effects for children's health, social and educational well-being.
Theoretically,
street hawking would be guided by Maslow hierarchy of needs (1943).Maslow's
hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a
five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a
pyramid.
From the bottom
of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological (food and clothing),
safety (job security), love and belonging needs (friendship), esteem, and
self-actualization. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before
individuals can attend to needs higher up.
The study would
equally be guided by Erik Erikson psychosocial theory of development. Erikson
maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight
stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood.
During each
stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive
or negative outcome for personality development. For Erikson (1958, 1963),
these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological
needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society
(i.e., social).
According to
the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy
personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are
characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to
successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete
further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of
self.
These stages,
however, can be resolved successfully at a later time. For the purpose of this
research, the fifth stage which is identity
versus role confusion would be used since it relates to adolescents.
Furthermore,
the study would also be guided by Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory (1979) Bronfenbrenner developed the
ecological systems theory to explain how everything in a child and the child’s
environment affects how a child grows and develops.
According to
Bronfenbrenner, the contexts of development are like circles within circles. He
labelled different aspects or levels of the environment that influence
children’s development, including the micro system, the mesosystem, the
exosystem, the macrosystem and chronosystem.
Contextually, this research was carried out in the limbe I municipality
in Fako division, Southwest Region of Cameroon. The researcher choose this area
because of the alarming increase in the rate of child hawkers in the area which
calls for concern.
Statement
of the problem
The sole
responsibility of parents is to take care of their children with regard to
their needs, emotions, and financial assistance especially with respect to
education.
But when
parents fail to provide financial support, children turn to engage in
commercial activities such as selling of oranges, cold water, boiled
groundnuts, fried snails commonly known as “Congo meat”, roasted as well boiled
corn in order to add the family’s revenue.
Student’s
involvement in this street hawking goes a long way to affect the time in which
they go to bed which cause them to go late to school, tiredness as a result of
selling throughout the day and not regularly attending classes.
The increase
population of children in the hawking business in the streets, quarters and
market in Limbe, coupled with the fact that some these children do not live
with their biological parents are of concern to the researcher.
The prime
intent of the researcher is to investigate the effects of street hawking on
adolescent’s classroom behavior.
What is the
effect of street hawking on adolescent’s classroom behavior in the Limbe I
Municipality?
- To what extent does students’ lateness to school affect adolescent’s classroom behavior in the Limbe I municipality?
- To what extend does fatigue affect adolescent’s classroom behavior in the Limbe I Municipality?
- To what extent does poverty affect adolescent’s classroom behavior in the Limbe I municipality.
- The main objective of the study is to examine the effects of street hawking on adolescent’s classroom behavior in the Limbe I Municipality.
·
To
examine whether student’s lateness to school affect adolescent’s classroom
behavior.
·
To
examine whether student’s fatigue affect adolescent’s classroom behavior.
·
To
examine whether poverty affects adolescent’s classroom behavior.
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